Ayurveda Initiative For Global Health

Microbes in Human Welfare Bacteria (1) Study of bacteria is called bacteriology. (2) Linnaeous placed them under genus vermes. (3) Nageli classified bacteria under schizomycetes. (4) Bacteria are unicellular, microscopic organisms. (5) These are the smallest cell wall having prokaryotic cell. (6) They differ from animals in having a rigid cell wall and being capable to synthesize vitamins. Size: (i) Bacteria are the smallest of all known cellular organisms which are visible only with the aid of microscope. (ii) They are 3 to 5 microns (1 m = 1/1000 millimetre or about 1/25,000 inch) in length. (iii) A few species of bacteria are approximately 15m in diameter. Shape: (i) The shape bacteria usually remain constant. (ii) Some of them are able to change their shape and size with changes in environmental conditions. Such bacteria, which change their shape, are called pleomorphic. (iii) The bacteria possess the following forms. (a) Cocci: (GK. Kokkos = Berry) They are oval or spherical in sh...

Lipids (1) Term lipid was coined by Bloor. (2) These are esters of fatty acids and alcohol. (3) They are hydrophobic insoluble in water but soluble in benzene, ether and chloroform. (4) Lipids are classified into three groups:– (A) Simple lipids: These are the esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Again they are typed as:– (a) Fats and Oils: (Natural lipids or true fats). These are triglycerides of fatty acid and glycerol. Fats which are liquid at room temperature are called oils. Oils with polyunsaturated fatty acids are called polyunsaturated e.g. sunflower oil, lower blood cholesterol. (b) Fatty acids: Obtained by hydrolysis of fats. Formic acid is simplest fatty acid (HCOOH). These are of 2 types:– (i) Saturated fatty acids: The fatty acids which do not have double bond in between carbon atoms.e.g. butyric acid, palmitic acid,hexanoic acid, etc. They have high melting points, solid at room temperature and increase blood cholesterol. (ii) Unsaturated fatty acids: The fatty acids which...

Amino Acids (1) Amino acids are normal components of cell proteins (called amino acid). (2) They are 20 in number specified in genetic code and universal in viruses, prokaryotes and eukaryotes. (3) Structure and Composition : Amino acids are basic units of protein and made up of C, H, O, N and sometimes S. Amino acids are organic acids with a carboxyl group (–COOH) and one amino group(-NH2) on the a -carbon atom. Carboxyl group attributes acidic properties and amino group gives basic ones. In solution, they serve as buffers and help to maintain pH. General formula is R-CHNH2.COOH. (4) Classification Based on R-group of amino acids (a) Simple amino acids: These have no functional group in the side chain. e.g. glycine, alanine , leucine, valine etc. (b) Hydroxy amino acids: They have alcohol group in side chain. e.g. threonine, serine, etc. (c) Sulphur containing amino acids: They have sulphur atom in side chain. e.g. methionine, cystenine. (d) Basic amino acids: They have basic group (-...

Biomolecules Ptroteins (1) The word protein was coined by Berzelius in 1838 and was used by G. J. Mulder first time 1840.   (2) 15% of protoplasm is made up of protein. Average proteins contain 16% nitrogen, 50–55% carbon, oxygen 20–24%, hydrogen 7% and sulphur 0.3 – 0.5%. Iron, phosphorous, copper, calcium, and iodine are also present in small quantity. (3) Structure of proteins: It is due to different rearrangement of amino acids. When carboxyl group of one amino acid binded with amino group (– NH2) of another amino acid the bond is called peptide bond. A peptide may be dipeptide, tripeptide and polypeptide. The simplest protein is Insulin. According to Sanger (1953) insulin consists of 51 amino acids. A protein can have up to four level of conformation. (i) Primary structure: The primary structure is the covalent connections of a protein. It refers to linear sequence, number and nature of amino acids bonded together with peptide bonds only. e.g. ribonuclease, insulin, haemo...

The trachea, also called the windpipe, is a cartilaginous tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi of the lungs, allowing the passage of air, and so is present in almost all air-breathing animals with lungs. The trachea extends from the larynx and branches into the two primary bronchi. At the top of the trachea the cricoid cartilage attaches it to the larynx. The trachea is formed by a number of horseshoe-shaped rings, joined together vertically by overlying ligaments, and by the trachealis muscle at their ends. The epiglottis closes the opening to the larynx during swallowing. The trachea begins to form in the second month of embryo development, becoming longer and more fixed in its position over time. It is epithelium lined with column-shaped cells that have hair-like extensions called cilia, with scattered goblet cells that produce protective mucins. The trachea can be affected by inflammati...

Molecular Basis of Inheritance DNA (1) DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides. (2) The length of the DNA depends on the number of nucleotide pairs present in it. (3) Bacteriophage lambda has 48,502 base pairs. Central dogma of molecular biology (1) Crick proposed the Central dogma in molecular biology (2) It states that the genetic information flows from DNA à RNA à Protein.  (3) In some viruses like retroviruses, the flow of information is in reverse direction, which is from RNA à DNA à mRNA à Protein. Structure of polynucleotide chain: (1) A nucleotide has three components- (a) A nitrogen base (b) A pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA) (c) A phosphoric acid. (2) There are two types of nitrogen bases: (a) Purines (Adenine and Guanine) (b) Pyrimidines (Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine) (3) Adenine, Guanine and Cytosine are common in RNA and DNA. (4) Uracil is present in RNA and in DNA in place of Uracil, Thymine is present. (5) In RNA, Pentose sugar is ribose and...

DNA finger printing (1) Alec Jeffreys et al (1985) developed the procedure of genetic analysis and forensic medicine, called DNA finger printing. (2) It is individual specific DNA identification which is made possible by the finding that no two people are likely to have the same number of copies of repetitive DNA sequences of the regions. (3) It is also known as DNA profiling. (4) The chromosomes of every human cell contain scattered through their DNA short, highly repeated 15 nucleotide segments called “mini-satellites” or variable-number Tandem Repeat (VNTR). Technique for DNA fingerprinting (1) Only a small amount of tissues like blood or semen or skin cells or the hair root follicle is needed for DNA fingerprinting. (2) Typically DNA content of about 100,000 cells or about 1 microgram is sufficient. (3) The procedure of DNA fingerprinting involves the following major steps: (i) DNA is isolated from the cells in a high-speed refrigerated centrifuge. (ii) If the sample of DNA is very...

Genomics and Human Genome project: (1) The term genome has been introduced by Winkler in 1920 and the genomics is relatively new, coined by Thomas Rodericks in 1986. (2) Genomics is the subdiscipline of genetics devoted to the mapping, sequencing and functional analysis of genomes. Genomics is subdivided into following types: (a) Structural genomics: It is the study of genome structure deals with the complete nucleotide sequences of the organisms. (b) Functional genomics: It is the study of genome function which includes transcriptome and proteome. Transcriptome is a complete set of RNAs transcribed from a genome while proteome is a complete set of proteins encoded by a genome and aims the determination of the structure and function of all the proteins in living organisms. (3) The human genome project, sometimes called “biology’s moon shot”, was launched on october 1, 1990 for sequencing the entire human genome of 2.75 billion (2.75 ´ 109 or 2750000 bp or 2750000 kilobase pairs or 2750...

Somatic Cells Somatic cells account for all the cells of the body except reproductive cells. Other than gametes, stem cells and germs cells, all the cells of a multicellular organism are known as somatic cells. Diploid somatic cells undergo mitosis and are responsible for growth, repair and regeneration. Somatic terms originate from the word ‘Soma’, which means ‘body’. They make up the entire organism other than cells, which have a reproductive function or are undifferentiated, e.g. stem cells. 🔹Somatic Cells Characteristics ➖Somatic cells are responsible for the growth and development of an organism ➖They are required for repair and regeneration ➖Somatic cells undergo mitosis and contain the same set of chromosomes as the organism ➖Somatic cells have a diploid set of chromosomes as compared to gametes, which are produced by meiosis (reduction division) and have a haploid set of chromosomes ➖Many species like wheat have a varied set of chromosomes in their somatic cells, e.g. hexaploi...

Human Reproduction- Significance of fertilization (a) It provides stimulus for the egg to complete its maturation. (b) It activates the ovum to develop into a new individual by repeated mitotic division. (c) Fertilization restores the diploid number of chromosomes (46 in man) in the zygote by adding male’s haploid set of chromosomes. (d) It makes the egg more active metabolically. (e) It combines the character of two parents and introduces variations. So help in evolution. (f) Sex chromosomes of sperm is either X or Y and helps in sex determination. (g) Fertilization membrane formed after sperm entry, checks the entry of additional sperms. (h) Copulation path sets the axis of division. Menstrual Cycle (1) Menstruation occurs in human, apes and old world monkeys. (2) Menstruation is bleeding from the uterus of adult females at intervals of one lunar month. (3) Beginning of menstruation or first menstruation is called menarche. (4) The beginning of menstruation varies. It usually occurs ...

What are heart valves? The heart has 4 chambers, 2 upper chambers (atria) and 2 lower chambers (ventricles). Blood passes through a valve before leaving each chamber of the heart. The valves prevent the backward flow of blood. Valves are actually flaps (leaflets) that act as one-way inlets for blood coming into a ventricle and one-way outlets for blood leaving a ventricle. Normal valves have 3 flaps (leaflets), except the mitral valve. It only has 2 flaps. The 4 heart valves are: Tricuspid valve. This valve is located between the right atrium and the right ventricle. Pulmonary valve. The pulmonary valve is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. Mitral valve. This valve is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle. It has only 2 leaflets. Aortic valve. The aortic valve is located between the left ventricle and the aorta. How do the heart valves work? As the heart muscle contracts and relaxes, the valves open and shut. This lets blood flow into the...

★Father of Biology: *Aristotle* ★Father of Physics: *Albert Einstein* ★Father of Chemistry: *Jabir Bin Hayan* ★Father of Statistics: *Ronald Fisher* ★Father of Zoology: *Aristotle* ★Father of History: *Herodotus* ★Father of Microbiology: *Louis Pasteur* ★Father of Botany: *Theophrastus* ★Father of Algebra: *Diophantus* ★Father of Blood groups: *Landsteiner* ★Father of Electricity: *Benjamin Franklin* ★Father of Trigonometry: *Hipparchus* ★Father of Geometry: *Euclid* ★Father of Modern Chemistry: *Antoine Lavoisier* ★Father of Robotics: *Nikola Tesla* ★Father of Electronics: *Ray Tomlinson* ★Father of Internet: *Vinton Cerf* ★Father of Economics: *Adam Smith* ★Father of Video game: *Thomas T. Goldsmith, Jr.* ★Father of Architecture: *Imhotep* ★Father of Genetics: *Gregor Johann Mendel* ★Father of Nanotechnology: *Richard Smalley* ★Father of Robotics: *Al-Jazari* ★Father of C language: *Dennis Ritchie* ★Father of World Wide Web: *Tim Berners-Lee* ★Father of Search engine: *Alan Emtage* ★...

TEA  Synonym: Camellia thea.   Biological source: Tea contains prepared leaves and leaf buds of Thea sinensis Linn.  Family: Theaceae.   Geographical source: Tea is cultivated in India, Srilanka, Indonesia, China and Japan. In India it is cultivated in North-Eastern India (mainly in Assam and Bengal), South India (in Nilgiri, Palni, Annamalai hills in Tamilnadu, Kerala and Karnataka states) and North West India (in Dehradun, Almora and Garhwal district of Uttaranchal, Kangra valley and Mandi district of Himanchal Pradesh).  Cultivation and Collection:  The tea is available in two forms:  1. Black tea  2. Green tea               Black tea is available from India and Srilanka whereas green tea is available from China and Japan. Black tea is obtained by fermentation of fresh tea leaves which further dried artificially.                Green te...

Healthy lungs are pink lungs Healthy lungs look pink and rubbery on the outside. The more you smoke though, the more tarry and black they become. This can have a serious effect on quality of life, and can even cause bubbles (called blebs) rupturing in your lungs (a condition called spontaneous pneumothorax)

The average human adult has 2000-4000 taste buds They aren’t only located on the tongue. These tiny sense organs that give us the ability to taste are also located in the back of your throat, your nose, and your esophagus. That’s right, your nose doesn’t just smell — it can taste too! The sense of smell is a very important component of tasting.

We all know that the heart of a healthy person beats 72 times in 1 minute. We also know that the heart of a man flows blood throughout his body. The question is how much blood our heart pumps in 1 minute 1. Your heart keeps beating even after the body breaks apart as long as it gets enough oxygen because it has its own electrical impulse. 2. A human heart pumps 70 ml of heartbeat once and 4.7 liters in 1 minute and about 7570 liters throughout the day and about 16 million liters of blood throughout life. This is equivalent to a tap being open for 45 years. 3. Which side is the heart: Your heart is not in the left or right side, but in the middle of the chest. 4. After four weeks of pregnancy, the baby's heart starts beating. 5. So far, the lowest 26 beats per minute of a human being and the highest 480 beats per minute has been recorded. 6. Your heartbeat also changes according to the song you are listening to. 7. Every day your heart generates so much energy that a truck...

What is the relationship between gonorrhea and chlamydia? Ans-Gonorrhea and chlamydia are both bacteria that cause STDs. The risk factors are the same for both infections, and both cause similar symptoms. The complications of chlamydia are very similar to gonorrhea except chlamydia is much less likely to affect sites other than the reproductive tract. Diagnosis and treatment are virtually the same as well. If you think you may have an STD, you should see a healthcare professional. They can determine what type it is by testing you as described above, and then start proper treatment.  

What are the differences between macrocytic anemia and microcytic anemia?  Anemia is a term for low hemoglobin or red blood cells. Anemia can be divided into different types based on the volume of the red blood cells. Macrocytic anemia means that the red blood cells are larger than normal. In microcytic anemia, the cells are smaller than normal. We use this classification because it helps us to determine the cause of the anemia. The most common causes of macrocytic anemia are vitamin B-12 and folate deficiency. Pernicious anemia is a type of macrocytic anemia due to the body not being able to absorb vitamin B-12. Elderly, vegans, and alcoholics are more susceptible to developing macrocytic anemia. The most common cause of microcytic anemia is iron-deficiency anemia, usually due to poor dietary intake or blood loss, such as menstrual blood loss or through the gastrointestinal tract. Pregnancy, menstruating women, infants, and those with a diet low in iron may have an increased chanc...

About Gall bladder ___ In vertebrates, the gallbladder is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver, although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species.

What is cancer ? Cancer is not a type of disease, but it occurs in many forms. There are more than 100 types of cancer. Most cancers are named after the organ or cells in which they begin - for example, cancer that starts in the colon is called colon cancer, a cancer that starts in the basal cells of the skin. Is called carcinoma. The term cancer is used for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and are able to invade other tissues. Cancer cells can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymphatic system. Main categories of cancer Carcinoma: A cancer that occurs in the skin or in the tissues that make up or cover the levels of internal organs. Sarcoma: A cancer that starts in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels or other connective tissue or accessory. Leukemia: Cancer that begins in tissues such as the blood-forming bone marrow and causes the production of abnormal blood cells in large amounts and entry into the blood. Lymphoma and myeloma: A ...